Kurdish Languages, Dialects & Ancient Linguistic Roots

3rd millennium BCEContext

Lullubian

An ancient highland people of the Zagros region. Their language is poorly known and should be treated as part of the pre-Iranian mountain background, not as Kurdish.

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c. 2200 BCEContext

Gutian

The Gutians were associated with the Zagros and Mesopotamian records. Their language remains uncertain and is best described as an ancient regional layer rather than Kurdish.

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3rd–2nd millennium BCEContext

Hurrian

Hurrian was a major ancient Near Eastern language spoken across northern Mesopotamia and nearby regions. It was not Iranian or Kurdish, but it shaped the wider historical environment.

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2nd millennium BCEContext

Kassite

The Kassites ruled Babylonia and were connected with the Zagros world. Their language is fragmentary and not classed as Kurdish, but belongs to the ancient regional background.

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c. 10th–7th century BCEContext

Mannaean

Mannaea was located around northwestern Iran and the Zagros frontier. Its language is uncertain, and it is best treated as a neighbouring ancient layer before clear Iranian dominance.

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2nd–1st millennium BCEOld Iranian

Proto-Iranian

The reconstructed ancestor of Iranian languages. Kurdish, Persian, Balochi, Pashto, Ossetian and other Iranian languages all belong to this wider family tree.

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c. 1500–500 BCEOld Iranian

Avestan

An ancient Iranian language preserved through Zoroastrian religious texts. It is not Kurdish, but it is vital for comparing early Iranian vocabulary and grammar.

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c. 8th–6th century BCEOld Iranian

Median

The language of the ancient Medes of northwestern Iran and the Zagros. It is often discussed in relation to Kurdish origins, but no full Median texts survive.

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6th–4th century BCEOld Iranian

Old Persian

The imperial language of the Achaemenid rulers. It was Southwestern Iranian rather than Kurdish, but it gives important evidence for the wider Iranian world of the time.

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1st millennium BCEOld Iranian

Scythian / Saka

Eastern Iranian languages associated with steppe and Central Asian peoples. They were not Kurdish, but they belong to the broader Iranian language family.

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3rd BCE–3rd CEMiddle Iranian

Parthian

A major Northwestern Iranian language of the Arsacid period. It is not Kurdish, but it is important for understanding the northwestern Iranian linguistic zone.

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3rd–7th century CEMiddle Iranian

Middle Persian / Pahlavi

The language of the Sasanian Empire. It was Southwestern Iranian, but its political, religious and literary influence affected many neighbouring Iranian communities.

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Late antique–medievalRelated

Old Azari / Adhari

A Northwestern Iranian language once spoken in parts of Azerbaijan before Turkic became dominant. It was not Kurdish, but it helps explain the older Iranian map of the region.

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Medieval transitionFormation

Early Kurdish Vernaculars

By the medieval period, Kurdish speech communities become increasingly visible in historical sources, though Kurdish did not emerge from one single documented moment.

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Medieval–early modernKurdish-linked

Gorani Literary Tradition

Gorani became a major literary and religious language among Kurdish communities, especially in Hawraman and Yarsani/Kaka’i contexts.

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Early modernKurdish proper

Classical Kurmanji

Kurmanji became a major literary Kurdish variety, especially through poets and scholars in northern Kurdistan and surrounding regions.

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18th–19th centuryKurdish proper

Classical Sorani

Sorani rose strongly as a written and literary standard, especially around the Baban principality and the Sulaymaniyah cultural sphere.

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ModernBranch

Northern Kurdish / Kurmanji

The largest northern branch of Kurdish, written today mainly in the Latin-based Hawar alphabet in Turkey and Syria, and also used across the diaspora.

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ModernDialect

Badini / Behdini

A major Kurmanji variety spoken around Duhok, Amedi and the Bahdinan region of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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ModernDialect

Botanî

The Cizre/Botan variety, historically important because it strongly influenced standard written Kurmanji.

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ModernDialect

Hekarî / Hakari

A Kurmanji variety associated with the Hakkari mountain region and the borderlands between Turkey, Iraq and Iran.

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ModernDialect

Serhedî

Spoken in northeastern Turkey, especially around Ağrı, Erzurum, Kars and neighbouring areas.

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ModernDialect

Torî

A Kurmanji variety associated with Mardin and the Tur Abdin region, shaped by intense contact with Arabic, Syriac and Turkish-speaking communities.

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ModernDialect

Xorasanî / Khorasani Kurdish

An isolated Kurmanji-related Kurdish pocket in northeastern Iran, linked to historical Kurdish settlement in Khorasan.

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ModernDialect

Marash / Western Kurmanji

A western Kurmanji variety spoken around Maraş, Antep and nearby areas of southern Turkey.

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ModernDialect

Bayezidî / Bazîdî

A Kurmanji variety connected with the Bayezid/Doğubayazıt region and related northeastern Anatolian Kurdish speech.

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ModernDialect

Vanî

A regional Kurmanji variety associated with Van and its surrounding Kurdish-speaking communities.

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ModernDialect

Bitlisî

A Kurmanji dialect associated with Bitlis and nearby areas, forming part of the eastern Anatolian Kurdish continuum.

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ModernDialect

Muşî

A regional Kurmanji form spoken around Muş, sitting between other eastern Anatolian Kurdish varieties.

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ModernDialect

Amedî / Diyarbakır Kurmanji

A prominent Kurmanji variety from the Diyarbakır/Amed region, central to modern Kurdish cultural and political life.

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ModernDialect

Afrînî

A Syrian Kurdish Kurmanji variety associated with Afrin and western Kurdish communities in Syria.

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ModernDialect

Kobanî Kurmanji

A Syrian Kurmanji variety associated with Kobani and surrounding Kurdish-speaking communities.

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ModernDialect

Erevanî / Caucasus Kurmanji

Kurmanji varieties historically spoken by Kurdish communities in Armenia, Georgia and the wider Caucasus.

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ModernDialect

Şikakî

A Kurmanji-linked tribal and regional speech variety associated with Kurdish communities around northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia.

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ModernDialect

Barwarî

A Kurmanji variety from the Barwar region, often linked with the wider Bahdinan-speaking zone.

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ModernDialect

Akrêyî

A local Kurmanji variety associated with Akre and nearby areas in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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ModernCommunity

Ezdiki / Yazidi Kurdish

Usually Kurmanji-based speech associated with Yazidi communities. It is often better treated as a community variety or religious-literary register rather than a separate language.

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ModernBranch

Central Kurdish / Sorani

A major Kurdish branch and written standard, commonly written in a modified Perso-Arabic script.

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ModernDialect

Babanî

The Sulaymaniyah/Baban variety, historically central to the development of standard Sorani writing.

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ModernDialect

Mukriyanî

A Central Kurdish variety spoken around Mahabad, Piranshahr and the wider Mukriyan region of Iranian Kurdistan.

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ModernDialect

Ardalanî / Sine’î

A Sorani-related variety associated with Sanandaj/Sine and the Ardalan region of Iranian Kurdistan.

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ModernDialect

Hewlêrî / Erbil Kurdish

A Central Kurdish variety spoken in and around Erbil/Hewlêr, with its own pronunciation and local vocabulary.

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ModernDialect

Jafî

A major tribal and regional Central Kurdish variety associated with the Jaf confederation and areas of Iraq and Iran.

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ModernDialect

Pişderî / Pizhdari

A Central Kurdish variety associated with the Pishdar region, close to the Iraqi-Iranian Kurdish borderlands.

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ModernDialect

Rewandizî / Rwandzî

A Sorani variety connected with Rawanduz and the mountainous northeast of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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ModernDialect

Koyî / Koya Kurdish

A local Central Kurdish variety associated with Koya/Koy Sanjaq and the surrounding region.

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ModernDialect

Qeredaxî / Qaradaghi

A Central Kurdish variety associated with Qaradagh/Qeredagh and neighbouring parts of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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ModernDialect

Germiyanî / Garmiyani

A Central Kurdish regional variety spoken in the Germiyan/Garmian zone, often around Kalar and nearby districts.

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ModernDialect

Kirkukî

A Central Kurdish urban and regional variety associated with Kirkuk and its multilingual environment.

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ModernDialect

Halabjayî

A Sorani variety associated with Halabja and the surrounding area near the Iranian border.

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ModernDialect

Warmawa

A local Central Kurdish variety often listed among regional Sorani-area speech forms.

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ModernDialect

Bingird

A lesser-known Central Kurdish local variety, useful for documenting the smaller branches of the Sorani continuum.

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ModernBranch

Southern Kurdish / Xwarîn

A major Kurdish branch covering many varieties in Kermanshah, Ilam, eastern Iraq and surrounding areas.

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ModernDialect

Kalhorî / Kelhurrî

One of the best-known Southern Kurdish varieties, especially prominent in and around Kermanshah.

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ModernDialect

Feylî / Fayli

A Southern Kurdish identity and speech zone associated with communities along the Iran-Iraq borderlands.

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ModernDialect

Ilami

A regional Southern Kurdish variety spoken in Ilam province and nearby border regions.

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ModernDialect

Kermanshahî

The urban and regional Kurdish speech of Kermanshah, influenced by contact with Persian and neighbouring Kurdish varieties.

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ModernDialect

Gerrûsî / Bicarî

A Kurdish variety associated with Bijar/Garrus in western Iran, often placed in the southern or transitional Kurdish zone.

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ModernDialect

Kolyayî

A Southern Kurdish variety spoken in northeastern Kermanshah province and nearby areas.

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ModernDialect

Malekshahî

A Southern Kurdish variety associated with the Malekshahi community and Ilam-Kermanshah borderlands.

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ModernDialect

Sanjabî

A tribal and regional Southern Kurdish variety associated with the Sanjabi Kurds of western Iran.

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ModernDialect

Zangana / Zengene

A Kurdish tribal and regional speech label connected with communities in the Kermanshah-Iraq frontier zone.

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ModernDialect

Kordalî / Kurdalî / Palai

A Southern Kurdish-related variety often discussed near the boundary of Kurdish and neighbouring Iranian speech forms.

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ModernDialect

Badre’î / Badra’i

A local Southern Kurdish variety associated with Badra and surrounding areas near the Iran-Iraq border.

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ModernDialect

Kakavandî

A Kurdish tribal and regional variety linked with communities in the Kermanshah-Lorestan zone.

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ModernDialect

Qasr-e Shirin Kurdish

A borderland Southern Kurdish variety associated with Qasr-e Shirin and nearby Kurdish-speaking communities.

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ModernDialect

Mandali Kurdish

A Southern Kurdish/Feyli-linked variety associated with Mandali and eastern Iraqi Kurdish communities.

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ModernDialect

Xanaqînî / Khanaqini

A Kurdish borderland variety around Khanaqin, where Southern Kurdish, Feyli and Central Kurdish influences meet.

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ModernDebated

Laki / Lekî

A major debated Kurdish-related language variety spoken between Lorestan, Kermanshah and nearby regions.

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ModernVariety

Delfanî

A Laki variety associated with Delfan and Nurabad areas, important for documenting Laki’s local diversity.

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ModernVariety

Selsele / Aleshtar Laki

A regional Laki variety spoken around Selsele and Aleshtar in Lorestan.

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ModernVariety

Kuhdashtî

A Laki-linked local variety associated with Kuhdasht and neighbouring parts of Lorestan.

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ModernVariety

Harsinî

A Laki variety associated with Harsin and the Kermanshah-Lorestan transition zone.

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ModernKurdish-linked

Zazaki / Zaza

A Northwestern Iranian language spoken mainly in eastern Turkey by many communities connected to Kurdish identity and history.

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ModernVariety

Northern Zazaki / Kirmanjkî

A Zazaki variety associated with Dersim/Tunceli, Erzincan and neighbouring regions.

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ModernVariety

Central Zazaki

A Zazaki variety spoken around Palu, Bingöl, Elazığ and surrounding areas.

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ModernVariety

Southern Zazaki / Dimilkî

A southern Zazaki variety associated with Siverek, Diyarbakır, Çermik and nearby regions.

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ModernVariety

Kirdkî

A name often used for Zazaki/Kirmanjki varieties, especially in some speaker communities.

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ModernVariety

Dersimkî

A Dersim-associated Zazaki variety with strong cultural significance in Alevi Kurdish history.

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ModernVariety

Çewlîgî / Bingöl Zazaki

A Zazaki variety associated with Bingöl/Çewlîg and nearby areas.

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ModernVariety

Siverekî

A southern Zazaki variety connected with Siverek and the surrounding Kurdish-speaking environment.

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ModernVariety

Varto Zazaki

A Zazaki variety associated with Varto and neighbouring eastern Anatolian communities.

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ModernKurdish-linked

Gorani / Gurani

A Northwestern Iranian language group deeply connected to Kurdish religious and literary history, especially among Yarsani/Kaka’i traditions.

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ModernVariety

Hewramî / Hawrami

The best-known Gorani-related variety, spoken in Hawraman/Avroman across the Iran-Iraq borderlands.

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ModernVariety

Hewramî-Takht / Taxt

A Hawrami variety associated with the Hawraman Takht area, known for its strong cultural identity.

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ModernVariety

Hewramî-Luhon / Luhoni

A Hawrami local variety from the Luhon/Lahon zone, part of the wider Hawraman speech continuum.

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ModernVariety

Shabakî

A Kurdish-linked speech variety used by the Shabak community in the Nineveh Plains of Iraq.

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ModernVariety

Bajalani

An endangered Gorani-related variety historically spoken near Mosul, Khanaqin and nearby areas.

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ModernVariety

Sarlî / Sarli

A lesser-known Gorani-related variety spoken by small communities in northern Iraq.

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ModernVariety

Kandulaî / Kandulai

A Gorani-related variety associated with Kandula/Kandule and nearby parts of western Iran.

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ModernVariety

Gawrajûyî

A local Gorani-related variety connected with the wider Gawraju/Gurani-speaking zone.

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ModernVariety

Gahvareyî

A Gorani-related variety associated with Gahvareh/Gahvare and the western Iranian Kurdish cultural zone.

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ModernVariety

Zardayanî

A smaller Gorani-related variety, useful for mapping the finer local branches of the Gorani-speaking world.

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ModernCommunity

Kaka’i / Yarsani Speech Varieties

Kaka’i/Yarsani communities have historically used Gorani, Hawrami and Kurdish varieties in religious and everyday life.

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ModernNot Kurdish

Luri / Lori

A neighbouring Western Iranian language group spoken in western Iran. It is related to Kurdish but should not be labelled as Kurdish proper.

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ModernNot Kurdish

Bakhtiari

A Southwestern Iranian language variety connected with the Bakhtiari people. It belongs near Luri/Persian rather than Kurdish proper.

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ModernNot Kurdish

Balochi

A Northwestern Iranian language with distant relation to Kurdish, but not a Kurdish dialect.

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ModernNot Kurdish

Persian / Farsi

A Southwestern Iranian language. Persian has influenced Kurdish heavily through literature, administration and state history, but it is not Kurdish.

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ModernNot Kurdish

Talyshi

A Northwestern Iranian language of the Caspian region. It is related within the Iranian family but is not Kurdish.

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