Mahmud Bayazidi: Pioneer of Kurdish Scholarship in the 19th Century

Daniel Rasul
Jan 2
8 min read

An AI generated image of Mahmud Bayazidi (1797–1859)

Mahmud Bayazidi (1797–1859), known in Kurdish as Mehmûdê Bazîdî, stands as a foundational figure in the preservation and documentation of Kurdish language, history, and culture during a period of profound political upheaval in the Ottoman Empire. Born in the eastern Anatolian town of Bayazid (modern-day Doğubeyazıt, Turkey), Bayazidi was a polymath whose works bridged traditional Islamic learning with emerging ethnographic and philological interests. His collaborations with Russian scholars, particularly the consul Auguste Jaba, resulted in the collection and transmission of invaluable Kurdish manuscripts to Saint Petersburg, safeguarding them for future generations.

As the Ottoman Empire centralized power and dismantled semi-autonomous Kurdish principalities, Bayazidi's writings captured the customs, dialects, and historical narratives of the Kurds, offering a rare insider's perspective. Though much of his output remained unpublished during his lifetime, his contributions laid the groundwork for modern Kurdology. This article explores his life, education, key collaborations, notable works, thematic contributions, and enduring legacy, drawing on historical sources to illuminate a scholar whose efforts transcended the constraints of his era.

Historical Context: Kurdistan in the Mid-19th Century

The 19th century was a transformative era for the Kurds, a people dispersed across the Ottoman, Persian, and Russian empires. Kurdistan, a loosely defined region encompassing parts of modern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, was characterized by tribal confederations and semi-independent emirates like those in Bayazid, Botan, and Soran. These principalities enjoyed relative autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty, but the Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876) aimed at centralization eroded local power, leading to uprisings and the dissolution of emirates. The Russo-Ottoman Wars (1828–1829 and 1853–1856, the latter known as the Crimean War) further destabilized the region, with Russian expansion into the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia bringing new influences.

Amid this flux, European orientalists took interest in non-Turkish Ottoman subjects, including the Kurds. Russian scholars, leveraging their proximity and imperial ambitions, sought local informants to document languages and cultures. Bayazidi emerged in this context, not as a passive source but as an active scholar rooted in Islamic traditions. His work coincided with the decline of classical Kurdish poetry in Gorani and the rise of prose in Kurmanji, the northern dialect he primarily used. Unlike later nationalist writers, Bayazidi's approach was ethnographic and preservative, reflecting a blend of local knowledge and external patronage.

The fall of the Bayazid emirate in the 1840s, amid Ottoman efforts to quell tribal unrest, forced many intellectuals like Bayazidi to relocate. Erzurum, a strategic Ottoman city near the Russian border, became a hub for such figures, where diplomatic consulates facilitated cross-cultural exchanges. It was here that Bayazidi's path intersected with Auguste Jaba, marking a pivotal shift in his career.

Early Life and Education: Foundations in a Borderland Town

Mahmud Bayazidi was born in 1797 in Bayazid, a fortress town at the crossroads of Ottoman, Persian, and Russian influences. Situated near Mount Ararat, Bayazid was a center of Kurdish tribal life, with a mixed population of Kurds, Armenians, and Turks. His family background remains obscure, but his title "Mullah" suggests religious training, common among Kurdish intellectuals. As a child, Bayazidi began his education with the Quran, a standard entry into Islamic scholarship. He mastered Arabic, the language of religious texts, before expanding to Persian (the literary lingua franca of the region) and Ottoman Turkish (the administrative language of the empire).

Kurdish, his native tongue, was not formally taught but absorbed through oral traditions and local madrasas. Bayazidi's proficiency in Kurmanji, the dialect spoken in northern Kurdistan, would later define his contributions. Seeking advanced knowledge, he traveled to Tabriz in northwestern Iran, a vibrant intellectual center under Qajar rule. There, he likely studied under Persian scholars, delving into history, philosophy, and linguistics. Tabriz exposed him to diverse influences, including Sufi orders like the Naqshbandi, which were prominent among Kurds and emphasized spiritual and ethical learning.

Upon returning to Bayazid, Bayazidi worked as a teacher, imparting knowledge in madrasas and perhaps serving local rulers like Behlûl Pasha. This period honed his skills in manuscript copying and commentary, essential in an era before printing. However, the Ottoman suppression of Kurdish emirates in the 1840s disrupted this stability. Bayazid's emirate fell, leading to his relocation to Erzurum around 1850. In Erzurum, he navigated a city teeming with refugees, diplomats, and spies, setting the stage for his collaboration with Russian interests.

Career and Collaborations: Bridging Empires

Bayazidi's scholarly career gained momentum in 1856 when Russian academic A.D. Dorn sought assistance in analyzing Kurdish documents. Dorn contacted Auguste Jaba, the newly appointed Russian consul in Erzurum, who in turn hired Bayazidi. This partnership was symbiotic: Jaba provided patronage and access to resources, while Bayazidi offered expertise in Kurdish language, history, and culture. Over the next few years, they compiled materials that were sent to the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg.

Their collaboration occurred against the backdrop of the Crimean War (1853–1856), which heightened Russian interest in Ottoman minorities. Bayazidi's role extended beyond translation; he actively collected over 50 volumes of handwritten Kurdish classics, including epics by Feqiyê Teyran, Melayê Bateyî, Melayê Cizîrî, and Ehmedê Xanî's Mem û Zîn. These were dispatched to Saint Petersburg's library, preserving texts that might otherwise have been lost amid regional turmoil. Margarita Rudenko later published details of this collection in 1961 as About the Hand-Written Kurdish Texts in Leningrad.

Bayazidi's work with Jaba also involved editing historical grammars. In 1858–1859, he revised Ali Taramokhi's 15th–16th-century Kurdish-Arabic-Persian grammar, adapting it for contemporary use. This effort reflected his interest in vernacularizing Kurdish learning, making it accessible beyond elite circles. Their joint projects included a Kurdish-French dictionary, published posthumously in 1879, which was the first of its kind and aided European scholars in studying Kurdish dialects.

Despite his productivity, Bayazidi faced challenges. His writings were commissioned for foreign audiences, not Kurdish readers, limiting their immediate impact. Political sensitivities—working with Russians during Ottoman-Russian tensions—may have isolated him. He died in 1859 in Erzurum, possibly from illness, at age 62, leaving several manuscripts unpublished.

Notable Works: Ethnography, History, and Linguistics

Bayazidi's oeuvre spans ethnography, historiography, linguistics, and folklore, with a focus on preserving Kurdish identity through prose. His most prominent ethnographic work is 'Adat u Rusumatname-ye Akradiye (Habits and Customs of Kurds), a detailed account of 19th-century Kurdish life. Written in Kurmanji, it covers social structures, tribal warfare, marriage rituals, games, horse breeding, and gender relations. Bayazidi compared Kurdish practices to French ones, noting women's relative freedom from certain oppressions. Published in 1963 by Rudenko with a Russian translation, it serves as an auto-ethnography, blending insider observations with normative critiques rooted in Islamic ethics.

In linguistics, Bayazidi's 1856 manuscript TuhfaTulkhulan (Gift for the Generous) analyzed Kurdish grammar for Jaba. Influenced by Arabic models, it discussed phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicology, merging Kurmanji and Sorani elements. He invented terms for linguistic concepts, highlighting synonyms and dialectal variations. This work, unpublished until recent studies, marks the first comprehensive Kurdish grammar, predating modern Kurdology by over a century.

Historiographically, Bayazidi translated Sharaf al-Din Khan Bidlisi's Sharafnama (1597), a seminal history of Kurdish dynasties, from Persian into Kurmanji. Simplifying its ornate style, he made it accessible to Kurdish speakers. Published in 1986 from the Saint Petersburg manuscript, it is considered the first modern Kurdish history book. His sequel, Kitêba Tawârîkhê Cedîdê Kurdistan (New History of Kurdistan, 1785–1858), chronicled recent events in emirates like Rawanduz and Botan. Tragically lost except for a French-translated preface, it distinguished Kurdish dialects while emphasizing unity.

Other works include a book of 3,000 Kurdish phrases illuminating daily life (French translation 1880), a prose summary of Mem û Zîn (published 1989), and Cami‘eya Rîsaleyan û Hikayetan (Collection of Treatises and Tales), featuring 40 stories on tribes, poets, and political events. These tales, often non-fictional, addressed Ottoman-Persian wars and tribal conflicts, serving as historical records.

Themes in Bayazidi's Writings: Islamic Learning Meets Local Tradition

Bayazidi's works are steeped in Islamic scholarship, viewing cultural decline as an eschatological sign rather than a call for nationalist revival. He critiqued clerical ignorance (jâhiliyya) and Sufi decadence, attributing them to the end times. In ethnography, he described Kurds inclusively—encompassing Sunnis, Yezidis, and sedentary groups—without racial or linguistic hierarchies. Customs like Newroz were Islamicized, and practices such as bread veneration deemed ignorant deviations from orthodoxy.

His histories emphasized 1000 AH (1591–1592 CE) as a turning point for Kurdish written traditions, crediting figures like Sharaf Khan and Ehmedê Xanî. Yet, his datings were sometimes inaccurate, reflecting oral traditions. Bayazidi supported Ottoman reforms for reducing tribal oppression (zulm), portraying centralization optimistically despite realities of increased instability.

Linguistically, he saw Kurdish as a mixed Arabic-Persian language, claiming Arab origins for Kurds without ethnic purity claims. Absent are romantic nationalism or Western philology; categories like "literature" were limited to poetry (shi‘ir) and tales (hikâya), not fiction. His auto-ethnography, commissioned for outsiders, documented tolerance toward Christians and Yezidis while excluding groups like Gypsies.

Personal Challenges and Final Years

Bayazidi's life was marked by displacement and dependency on patronage. The loss of local rulers left him vulnerable, and his Russian ties risked Ottoman suspicion. Health issues may have contributed to his death in 1859. Many works remained manuscripts, vulnerable to loss, as with his modern history.

Legacy: A Cornerstone of Kurdology

Bayazidi's legacy lies in preserving Kurdish heritage amid imperial erasure. His collections in Saint Petersburg enabled Soviet-era publications, influencing scholars like Rudenko. Though marginalized as a "native informant" in Russian orientalism—his contributions downplayed and errors highlighted—he embodied local agency in ethnic documentation.

In Kurdish historiography, he bridges classical and modern eras, vernacularizing knowledge without nationalism. Recent studies rediscover his role in prose development and grammar. As Kurds navigate identity today, Bayazidi symbolizes resilience, his works a testament to cultural continuity.

In conclusion, Mahmud Bayazidi's scholarly pursuits, forged in borderland tensions, enriched global understanding of the Kurds. His blend of tradition and innovation ensures his place as a pioneer whose voice echoes through preserved texts.

References for Mahmud Bayazidi

Mahmud Bayazidi - Wikipedia URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Bayazidi Comprehensive entry on his biography (born 1797 in Bayazid, died 1859 in Erzurum), education in Tabriz, collaboration with Auguste Jaba, and works including the ethnographic 'Adat u Rusumatname-ye Akradiye and Kurmanji translation of Sharafnama. References include Blau (2006), Kreyenbroek (1992), and Rudenko (1963).
BAYAZIDI, MAḤMUD - Encyclopaedia Iranica URL: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bayazidi-mahmud Scholarly article by M. Chyet detailing his birth (1797 in Doğubeyazıt), relocation to Erzurum, partnership with Jaba (1856–1859), and key manuscripts like the Kurdish grammar TuhfaTulkhulan, Sharafnama translation, and New History of Kurdistan. Bibliography includes Bayazidi (1963), Chyet (1991), Jaba (1879), and Rudenko (1961).
Mahmud Bayazidi - Kurdipedia URL: https://kurdipedia.org/default.aspx?q=2019032716422425472&lng=8 Biography emphasizing his role as a pioneer in Kurdish prose, collection of 50+ manuscripts sent to Saint Petersburg, and works on folklore and history. Sources include Kurdish academic translations and Rudenko's catalog.
The First Kurdish Gazette: Kurdistan (1898-1902) URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345782567_The_First_Kurdish_Gazette_Kurdistan_1898-1902 Article referencing Bayazidi's ethnographic contributions in the context of 19th-century Kurdish intellectual history, citing his Customs and Habits of Kurds as a foundational text.
Kurdish Written Literature - Encyclopaedia Iranica URL: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kurdish-written-literature Overview of Kurdish literature mentioning Bayazidi as a key 19th-century prose writer in Kurmanji, with works like the Sharafnama translation and grammar. Extensive bibliography including Blau (1989), Kreyenbroek (1992), and Rudenko (1963).
A Kurdish Grammar from the mid-19th Century - Academia.edu URL: https://www.academia.edu/1298455/A_Kurdish_Grammar_from_the_mid_19th_Century_The_Zerf_i_Kurdi_of_Mahmud_Bayazidi Paper by Michiel Leezenberg analyzing Bayazidi's TuhfaTulkhulan (1856), its linguistic innovations, and collaboration with Jaba, based on the Saint Petersburg manuscript.
Mahmud Bayazidi's "Customs and Habits of Kurds" - JSTOR URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330684 Translation and analysis of 'Adat u Rusumatname-ye Akradiye by Rudenko (1963), discussing themes of tribal life, Islamic ethics, and cultural practices.
Mahmud Bayazidi - Kurdish Academy of Language URL: https://www.kurdishacademy.org/mahmud-bayazidi/ Profile highlighting his manuscript collections, folklore compilations (Cami‘eya Rîsaleyan û Hikayetan), and role in preserving classical Kurdish texts like Mem û Zîn.
The Kurds: A Concise Handbook - Google Books URL: https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZxVAAAAMAAJ Excerpt from Mehrdad Izady's book (1992) discussing Bayazidi's historiographical works, including the lost New History of Kurdistan and its French preface.
Kurdish Intellectuals and the Russian Influence - Kurdish Studies Journal URL: https://kurdishstudies.net/menu-script/index.php/KS/article/view/45 Article on Russian-Kurdish scholarly exchanges, focusing on Bayazidi's partnership with Jaba and Dorn, and the Saint Petersburg collection cataloged by Rudenko (1961).