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Kurds and Kurdistan During World War I
A chronological timeline of war, famine, revolt, diplomacy and betrayal — from Barzan and Bitlis to Sèvres, Lausanne and the partition of Kurdistan.
Why this timeline matters
World War I transformed Kurdistan from an imperial frontier into one of the central unresolved national questions of the modern Middle East. Kurdish lands were drawn into Ottoman collapse, Russian invasion, British occupation, Armenian and Assyrian suffering, Kurdish famine, forced deportation, nationalist diplomacy, armed revolt and finally diplomatic erasure at Lausanne.
Editorial note
This history is not simple. Some Kurdish tribal forces participated in violence against Armenians and Assyrians; other Kurds protected Christians and opposed Ottoman policies. Kurdish communities themselves were also displaced, starved, deported and divided between empires and new states.
Quick Summary
- Before WWI: Kurdish society was divided between tribal authority, religious sheikhs, Ottoman loyalists, autonomists and separatists.
- During WWI: Kurdish regions became a battlefield between the Ottoman and Russian empires.
- After WWI: Kurdish nationalists tried to secure autonomy or independence through diplomacy and revolt.
- Final outcome: Sèvres briefly recognised Kurdish autonomy; Lausanne erased Kurdistan from the final treaty settlement.
Prelude: Before the Great War
Sheikh Ubeydullah Revolt
Sheikh Ubeydullah of Nehri led one of the first major modern Kurdish revolts against both Ottoman and Qajar authority. His movement introduced an early political language of Kurdish collective identity, self-rule and territorial consciousness.
Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments Formed
Sultan Abdul Hamid II created the Hamidiye Light Cavalry Regiments, recruiting heavily from Sunni Kurdish tribes along the Ottoman-Russian frontier. The regiments defended the border but also deepened tribal militarisation, land seizure and intercommunal violence.
The First Kurdish Newspaper Appears in Cairo
Mikdad Midhat Bedir Khan published Kurdistan, the first Kurdish newspaper. It became a milestone in Kurdish political consciousness, language and modern nationalist thought.
Sheikh Abdul Salam II’s Kurdish Demands
Sheikh Abdul Salam II of Barzan called for Kurdish-language education, Kurdish-speaking officials and recognition of Kurdish rights in Kurdish-majority districts. These demands show that Kurdish autonomy was already being articulated before the war.
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution raised Kurdish hopes for constitutional reform, but the Committee of Union and Progress increasingly moved toward centralisation and Turkish nationalism. Kurdish politics split between loyalist, autonomist and separatist positions.
Duhok Petition / Barzan-Brifkani Manifesto
Sheikh Abdul Salam II and Nur Mohamed Brifkani are associated in Kurdish sources with renewed demands for Kurdish administrative autonomy, Kurdish-language education and Kurdish-speaking officials. Ottoman authorities treated these demands as separatism.
Bitlis Uprising
Mela Selîm led a Kurdish revolt in Bitlis only months before Ottoman entry into World War I. The revolt was suppressed, its leaders were executed, and it became one of the most important immediate pre-war Kurdish uprisings.
1914–1918: Kurdistan in the War Zone
Ottoman Pressure on Barzan
Ottoman pressure on the Barzan movement intensified. Sheikh Abdul Salam II sought alliances with Russian officials, Assyrian leaders and Armenian figures before being betrayed, captured and handed over to Ottoman authorities.
The Caucasus Front Opens
Russian forces launched the Bergmann Offensive against the Ottoman eastern frontier. Kurdish regions including Erzurum, Van, Bitlis and Muş became central to the war zone.
Execution of Sheikh Abdul Salam II
Sheikh Abdul Salam II was hanged in Mosul. His execution marked a turning point in Barzan history and strengthened the anti-state direction of the Barzani movement.
Battle of Sarikamish
Enver Pasha’s winter offensive against Russia collapsed near Sarikamish. The Ottoman Third Army suffered catastrophic losses from combat, cold, hunger, disease and poor planning.
Van Resistance and Russian Entry into Van
Armenian fighters resisted Ottoman forces in Van until Armenian volunteers and Russian troops entered the city. The events became tied to the Armenian Genocide and the wider Russian-Ottoman struggle.
Armenians and Assyrians Targeted
Ottoman forces, gendarmes, Special Organisation networks and local auxiliaries carried out massacres, deportations and property seizures. Some Kurdish tribal forces participated; other Kurdish individuals and tribes protected or sheltered Christians.
Russian Capture of Erzurum
Russian forces captured Erzurum, one of the most important Ottoman strongholds in eastern Anatolia. The fall of Erzurum caused further Ottoman retreat and deepened the refugee crisis.
Russian Advances Toward Bitlis and Muş
Russian and Armenian volunteer forces advanced deeper into eastern Anatolia, threatening Bitlis, Muş and the Lake Van region. Many Kurdish civilians fled the Russian advance.
Sykes-Picot Agreement
Britain and France secretly agreed to divide much of the Ottoman Middle East into future spheres of influence. Kurdish lands were not treated as a unified homeland.
Kurdish Famine and Refugee Catastrophe
War, scorched-earth tactics, forced marches, deportations, famine, disease and Russian-Ottoman fighting devastated Kurdish civilian life. Hundreds of thousands were displaced and very large numbers died.
CUP Deportations of Kurds
The Ottoman CUP government deported Kurds from parts of eastern Anatolia toward western and central regions. The policy aimed to break up Kurdish tribal concentration and accelerate Turkification.
Mustafa Kemal Retakes Muş and Bitlis
Mustafa Kemal, commanding the Ottoman XVI Corps, briefly retook Muş and Bitlis from Russian forces. The victory slowed the Russian advance but did not end the civilian catastrophe.
Russian Collapse Transforms the Eastern Front
The Russian Revolution caused the Russian Caucasus Army to disintegrate, leaving abandoned weapons, collapsing occupation structures and a dangerous power vacuum.
Erzincan Armistice
The Erzincan Armistice suspended fighting between Ottoman and Russian forces on the Caucasus Front. Kurdish regions were left exposed to competing local and regional forces.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Woodrow Wilson announced the Fourteen Points. Point 12 promised security and “autonomous development” for non-Turkish peoples under Ottoman rule, language later used by Kurdish nationalists.
Assassination of Mar Shimun Benyamin
Simko Shikak assassinated Assyrian Patriarch Mar Shimun Benyamin during a meeting in northwestern Persia, triggering further massacres and reprisals between Assyrian, Kurdish and other local communities.
Armistice of Mudros
The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros, ending its participation in World War I and creating a power vacuum across Kurdistan.
British Occupation of Mosul
British forces occupied Mosul after Mudros. This became the foundation of the Mosul Question and played a decisive role in attaching Southern Kurdistan to British-controlled Iraq.
1918–1920: Diplomacy and the Hope of Statehood
Society for the Rise of Kurdistan Announced
The Society for the Rise of Kurdistan became the central Kurdish nationalist organisation in Istanbul, promoting Kurdish rights, language, political representation and autonomy or independence.
Jîn Magazine Promotes Kurdish Identity
Jîn became a major Kurdish intellectual publication, discussing Kurdish language, history, geography, women, culture and national identity during the armistice period.
Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji Appointed Governor
British authorities appointed Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji as governor of Sulaymaniyah, hoping to rule Southern Kurdistan indirectly. He used the position to expand Kurdish authority.
Sharif Pasha Represents Kurdish Claims in Paris
General Sharif Pasha presented Kurdish claims at the Paris Peace Conference. His diplomacy was weakened by internal divisions, Armenian-Kurdish territorial disputes and imperial priorities.
First Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji Revolt
Sheikh Mahmud rebelled against British control, expelled British officials and claimed authority over Kurdistan. British forces defeated his coalition at Bazyan Pass and exiled him to India.
Kurdish-Armenian Declaration
Sharif Pasha and Boghos Nubar Pasha signed a joint Kurdish-Armenian declaration in Paris. Many Kurdish leaders rejected concessions over Van, Bitlis, Erzurum and other disputed regions.
Sharif Pasha Resigns
After backlash over the Armenian agreement, Sharif Pasha resigned as Kurdish representative. This weakened Kurdish diplomacy just before Sèvres.
San Remo Conference
The Allied powers confirmed the mandate system for former Ottoman territories, placing Southern Kurdistan inside the British sphere and western Kurdish regions inside the French sphere.
Treaty of Sèvres
Sèvres included Articles 62, 63 and 64, creating a mechanism for Kurdish local autonomy and possible independence. It was the high point of international legal recognition for Kurdistan, but it was never implemented.
1921–1923: Revolt, Mandates and Erasure
Cairo Conference
Winston Churchill’s Cairo Conference shaped the British Middle East settlement. Kurdish-majority areas were increasingly tied to Iraq rather than separated into a Kurdish state.
Koçgiri Rebellion
The Koçgiri Rebellion erupted among Alevi Kurdish tribes in eastern Sivas. Rebels demanded Kurdish autonomy based partly on Sèvres. Ankara suppressed the uprising with extreme violence.
Sheikh Mahmud Reinstated, Then Declares the Kingdom of Kurdistan
The British reinstated Sheikh Mahmud as governor of Sulaymaniyah, hoping he could act as a buffer against Turkey. Instead, he formed a Kurdish government and declared himself King of Kurdistan.
Simko Shikak’s Revolt is Crushed
Reza Khan’s forces defeated Simko Shikak in northwestern Iran, weakening Kurdish tribal autonomy in Persia and strengthening the centralising Iranian state.
Treaty of Lausanne
Lausanne replaced Sèvres and recognised the borders of the modern Republic of Turkey. It contained no Kurdish autonomy provisions and did not mention Kurdistan.
Founding of Azadî
Azadî, a Kurdish nationalist organisation, was formed by Kurdish officers and intellectuals, becoming a bridge between post-WWI disappointment and the Sheikh Said Rebellion of 1925.
Why Sèvres Mattered
Sèvres mattered because it placed the Kurdish question into international law. Articles 62, 63 and 64 created a framework for Kurdish autonomy and possible independence in Kurdish-majority areas east of the Euphrates. For Kurdish nationalists, this was the closest the post-war order came to recognising Kurdistan as a political entity.
Why Lausanne Was a Disaster for the Kurds
Lausanne erased the Kurdish provisions of Sèvres. Its minority protections were framed around non-Muslim minorities, leaving Muslim Kurds outside formal international minority protection. Kurdistan was divided between Turkey, Iraq, Syria and Iran, shaping the Kurdish struggle for the next century.
Related Articles on Kurdish-History.com
Selected Sources and Further Reading
- U.S. National Archives — Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points
- Treaty of Sèvres text — Articles 62–64
- Treaty of Lausanne text — Political clauses
- Encyclopaedia Britannica — Sykes-Picot Agreement
- United Nations — San Remo Resolution
- Sciences Po — Repression of the Koçgiri Rebellion
- PBS Frontline — Kurds at the Crossroads, 1900–1945
Legacy: World War I did not create the Kurdish question, but it transformed it. The promises of Sèvres were abandoned, Lausanne erased Kurdistan from the settlement, and the partition of Kurdish lands became one of the defining unresolved issues of the modern Middle East.