Mustafa Yamulki: A Kurdish Patriot in the Twilight of Empires
- Kurdish History
- 14 hours ago
- 15 min read
Introduction
Mustafa Yamulki, born on January 25, 1866, in Sulaymaniyah (then part of the Ottoman Empire's Mosul Vilayet), and passing away on May 25, 1936, in Baghdad, stands as a pivotal figure in Kurdish and Ottoman history. Known also as "Nemrud" Mustafa Pasha, he was a multifaceted individual: a high-ranking Ottoman military officer, the chairman of the post-World War I Ottoman military courts, the Minister of Education in the short-lived Kingdom of Kurdistan, and a journalist who championed Kurdish nationalism. Hailing from the influential Bilbaz tribe, Yamulki's life spanned the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the tumultuous aftermath of World War I, and the early stirrings of modern Middle Eastern nation-states. His career reflected the complex interplay of loyalty, reform, and resistance in a region fraught with ethnic and political tensions.
Yamulki's story is one of intellectual rigor, military prowess, and unwavering Kurdish pride. In an era when illiteracy was rampant across the Middle East, he mastered multiple languages—Kurdish, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian—and rose through the Ottoman ranks to become a Major General (Mirliva). His roles in the Ottoman military courts, where he condemned key figures involved in the Armenian Genocide and even sentenced Mustafa Kemal Atatürk to death in absentia, marked him as a man of principle amid chaos. Later, his exile to Iraq and service in Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji's Kingdom of Kurdistan underscored his commitment to Kurdish self-determination. Through his journalism and political activism, Yamulki left an indelible mark on Kurdish identity, protesting Turkish policies and advocating for independence. Recent documentaries, such as "Mustafa Pasha Yamulki: A Struggler for Justice," have revived interest in his legacy, portraying him as a bridge between justice and nationalism.
This article delves deeply into Yamulki's life, drawing on historical accounts to explore his early years, military service, judicial roles, political engagements, and enduring impact. At approximately 3000 words, it aims to provide a comprehensive portrait of a man who navigated empires and emerged as a symbol of Kurdish resilience.
Early Life and Education
Mustafa Yamulki was born into a prominent intellectual family in Sulaymaniyah, a city in southern Kurdistan that would later become a hub of Kurdish nationalism. His birthplace, in the Sabonkaran neighborhood opposite the historic Hamami Mufti public bath, was emblematic of the region's rich cultural tapestry. The Bilbaz tribe, to which he belonged, was one of the powerful Kurdish clans, known for its landowning status and influence in local affairs. Standing at 170 cm tall, Yamulki was described by contemporaries as a figure of patriotism, bravery, and intellectual brightness—traits that would define his trajectory.
In an age when formal education was scarce, especially in the Ottoman peripheries, Yamulki's upbringing emphasized learning. He began his studies in local mosques, a common practice for Kurdish youth at the time. Under the tutelage of religious scholars Mala Fatah and Mala Erfan at the Said Hussan Mosque, he received foundational instruction in Islamic studies, languages, and basic sciences. This early exposure laid the groundwork for his multilingual proficiency, which included fluent command of Kurdish (his native tongue), Arabic, Turkish, and Persian—essential for navigating the multicultural Ottoman bureaucracy.
Seeking broader opportunities, Yamulki enrolled in the Rushdia Alaskarya (Military Preparatory School) in Baghdad, where he honed his skills in military discipline and academics. His ambition propelled him to Istanbul, the Ottoman capital, where he attended the prestigious Harb Medrasasi (War School), also known as the Ottoman Military Academy. Graduating with distinction in 1888 as an officer (Naqib), Yamulki's education equipped him not only for warfare but also for administrative and diplomatic roles. His time in Istanbul exposed him to intellectual circles and reformist ideas, fostering a sense of Kurdish identity amid Ottoman centralization efforts.
On a personal front, Yamulki married Safya Khanim Khandan Zada on May 3, 1888, in Istanbul. She came from a notable Kurdish family residing in the Uskudar district, daughter of Hussain Pasha and sister of Saeed Pasha. Their union produced one son, Colonel Aziz Yamulki (who later plotted a coup against the Iraqi government in the 1940s), and three daughters: Zahra (who married into prominent families and died in 1983), Dr. Anjom (a medical professional who passed in 1968 in Paris), and Maliha (deceased in 1986). This family life provided stability amid his demanding career, though his professional duties often took him far from home.
Yamulki's early life thus blended tribal roots with Ottoman cosmopolitanism, setting the stage for a career that would straddle loyalty to the empire and advocacy for his people.
Military Career in the Ottoman Empire
Yamulki's military journey began immediately after graduation, marking the start of a distinguished service spanning decades. In 1888, he was posted to the Hijaz Division in what is now Saudi Arabia, leading troops as a high-ranking officer. By 1893, he served as a councillor in Slimas and Khuey in Iranian Kurdistan, doubling as a commercial councillor in Sanandaj Province—roles that honed his diplomatic skills in border regions.
His promotions accelerated: in 1899, he became deputy chief of staff for the Ottoman Sixth Army in Baghdad, a critical position overseeing operations in Mesopotamia. In 1904, he was appointed commissioner to delineate the Iraq-Iran border, demonstrating his expertise in geopolitics. By 1908, he headed the military division in Ankara, and in 1909, he was promoted to brigadier, commanding the 21st Army in Baghdad before transferring to Azerbaijan.
Yamulki's combat experience included major conflicts. In 1911, he commanded the Fifth Army during the Italo-Turkish War, defending Ottoman territories in Libya against Italian invasion. He also fought in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), where Ottoman losses reshaped the empire's European holdings. By 1917, amid World War I, he led Ottoman forces in Baghdad, a theater of intense British campaigns that culminated in the city's fall.
Post-1918 Armistice, Yamulki was appointed to lead Ottoman forces in the Sivas region in northeastern Turkey on December 3, 1918. His tenure as vice-governor of Bursa further showcased his administrative acumen. Throughout, Yamulki maintained a reputation for integrity, even as the empire crumbled. A lighter anecdote from 1912 illustrates his humor: While in Istanbul, he summoned a shoe polisher who, unaware Yamulki was Kurdish, cursed him in Kurdish. Yamulki paid extra for the "swearing," revealing his heritage with wit.
Yamulki's military career, fraught with wars and administrative challenges, positioned him as a respected figure, but the empire's defeat would thrust him into controversial judicial roles.
Role in the Post-WWI Trials and Armenian Genocide Context
The Ottoman defeat in World War I ushered in a period of reckoning, with Yamulki at its center. On April 18, 1920, he was appointed chairman of the Turkish courts-martial (known as the Istanbul Trials of 1919–1920 or "Nemrud's Court"). These tribunals, established by the post-war Ottoman government under Allied pressure, prosecuted Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) leaders for wartime crimes, including subversion of the constitution, profiteering, and massacres of Armenians and Greeks.
As head judge, Yamulki presided over high-profile cases. He condemned Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (founder of modern Turkey) and associates like Fethi Okyar, Hüseyin Rauf Orbay, and others to death in absentia for mutiny against the Sultanate. The warrant, signed by Interior Minister Ali Kemal, Grand Vizier Damad Ferid Pasha, and Sultan Mehmed VI, targeted the burgeoning Turkish nationalist movement. Yamulki also sentenced Ebubekir Hazim Tepeyran, a former interior minister, for aiding nationalists.
Crucially, the trials addressed the Armenian Genocide (1915–1916), where an estimated 1–1.5 million Armenians perished through deportations, massacres, and forced marches orchestrated by CUP leaders like Talat Pasha, Enver Pasha, and Cemal Pasha. Yamulki's court convicted figures such as Dr. Mehmed Reşid (governor of Diyarbakir) for mass killings, sentencing him to death (though he committed suicide). In Yozgat and Harput trials, officials were condemned for executing intellectuals and overseeing death marches, with evidence from telegrams, survivor accounts, and mass graves.
Yamulki's integrity shone through: He preserved and handed over sealed documents on Armenian massacres to the Armenian Patriarchate, exposing Ottoman corruption. In a poignant statement, he declared: "Our compatriots have committed untold crimes by resorting to every conceivable form of despotism, organized deportation and massacre, burned feeding mothers doused with petrol alive, raped women and girls…. They have subjected the Armenians to intolerable conditions, such as no other people had ever experienced throughout history." This framed the events as deliberate policy, not wartime necessity.
However, political shifts led to his dismissal in June 1920. Arrested and sentenced to seven months in prison, he was pardoned by Sultan Mehmed VI in February 1921. By June 1921, Yamulki fled to Mandatory Iraq, escaping the rising Kemalist forces that invalidated the trials in 1922.
His role in these trials cemented his reputation as a "struggler for justice," challenging state machinery to expose atrocities.
Exile and Involvement in the Kingdom of Kurdistan
Exiled in Sulaymaniyah, Yamulki aligned with Kurdish aspirations. Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji, leading efforts for autonomy under British Mandate, proclaimed the Kingdom of Kurdistan on October 10, 1922. Yamulki was appointed Minister of Education in Barzanji's cabinet, alongside figures like Abdulkarim Alaka (Finance), Sheikh Qadir Hafeed (Prime Minister), and Zaky Sahibqran (Defense). His brother, Brigadier General Siddik Qadiri, served as Army General Inspector.
As Education Minister, Yamulki focused on fostering Kurdish identity through schooling, promoting literacy and cultural preservation amid British opposition. The kingdom, though short-lived (collapsed by 1924 due to British intervention), represented a nascent Kurdish state with a national army and diverse cabinet, including a Christian finance minister—highlighting inclusivity.
Yamulki co-founded Jemiyeti Kurdistan (Kurdistan Association) on July 21, 1922, with intellectuals like Ahmad Behjat Afendi and Rafiq Hilmi. The group published "Bangi Kurdistan" (The Call of Kurdistan) in Kurdish, Turkish, and Persian, advocating independence. On October 1, 1924, they petitioned the League of Nations against Turkish claims on Mosul Vilayet and mistreatment of Kurds, invoking the Treaty of Sèvres.
After the kingdom's fall and Barzanji's replacement by Arab King Faisal I, Yamulki moved to Baghdad, continuing his activism through journalism.
Journalism and Later Life
In Baghdad, Yamulki turned to journalism, publishing from January 28, 1926. He also wrote poetry; his divan was posthumously published in 1956. Proud of his Kurdish roots, he requested this verse for his grave: "Etirsm ey weten bimrim, nebînim bextiyarî to / Binwsin ba leser qebrim, weten xemgîn u min xemgîn" (My homeland, I fear dying without seeing your happiness / Etch on my grave that my homeland and I are both sad).
He died in Baghdad's Alwazyrya area on May 25, 1936, aged 70, and was buried in Sulaymaniyah's Gurdi Saywan graveyard alongside other Kurdish notables. His son Aziz's later coup involvement echoed his father's rebellious spirit.
Legacy and Recent Recognition
Yamulki's legacy endures as a symbol of justice and Kurdish nationalism. His condemnation of Armenian atrocities challenged denialism, while his ministerial role advanced Kurdish self-rule. Controversies, like sentencing Atatürk, highlight his Ottoman loyalty turned nationalist fervor.
In recent years, the 2023 documentary "Mustafa Pasha Yamulki: A Struggler for Justice," directed by Horen Ghareeb and Hardi Qadir, won Best Documentary at the 2024 Brightlight Film Festival. Premiered in Erbil's Armenian Church, it portrays him as a "brave son of the Kurdish nation" who exposed genocidal crimes. Screenings at festivals like Duhok IFF underscore his cross-cultural significance.
Key Events and Timeline
Mustafa Yamulki's life was marked by significant milestones in military service, judicial proceedings, and Kurdish political activism. Below is a chronological timeline of key events, compiled from historical records, highlighting his personal, professional, and political journey.
Year | Event |
1866 | Born on January 25 in Sulaymaniyah (Slemani), Mosul Vilayet, Ottoman Empire, into the influential Bilbaz Kurdish tribe. |
1888 | Graduates with distinction from the Ottoman Military Academy (Harb Medrasasi) in Istanbul as an officer (Naqib). Posted to the Hijaz Division shortly after. |
1888 | Marries Safya Khanim Khandan Zada on May 3 in Istanbul. The couple would have one son (Aziz Yamulki) and three daughters (Zahra, Anjom, and Maliha). |
1893 | Appointed as a councillor in Slimas and Khuey in Iranian Kurdistan, and serves as commercial councillor in Sanandaj Province. |
1899 | Becomes deputy chief of staff for the Ottoman Sixth Army in Baghdad. |
1904 | Serves as commissioner to delineate the Iraq-Iran border. |
1908 | Heads the military division in Ankara. |
1909 | Promoted to brigadier; commands the 21st Army in Baghdad before transferring to Azerbaijan. |
1911 | Commands the Fifth Army during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya. |
1912–1913 | Participates in the Balkan Wars as a high-ranking officer. |
1917 | Leads Ottoman forces in Baghdad amid World War I campaigns against British forces. |
1918 | Appointed on December 3 to lead Ottoman forces in the Sivas region; also serves as vice-governor of Bursa. |
1919 | Appointed in February as presiding judge of the Divan-ı Harb-i Örfi (Extraordinary Military Tribunal) in Istanbul, overseeing early trials related to wartime crimes. |
1919 | Presides over key Armenian Genocide-related trials, including Yozgat (starting May), Harput (July 5), and the sentencing of Dr. Mehmed Reşid to death on September 15 (though Reşid commits suicide). |
1920 | Officially appointed head of the Turkish courts-martial on April 18; condemns Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and associates (including Fethi Okyar and Hüseyin Rauf Orbay) to death in absentia for mutiny. |
1920 | Sentences Ebubekir Hazim Tepeyran, former Interior Minister, for aiding nationalists; hands over sealed documents on Armenian massacres to the Armenian Patriarchate. |
1920 | Dismissed from his judicial position in June amid political shifts. |
1920–1921 | Arrested by Kemalist forces and sentenced to seven months in prison. |
1921 | Pardoned by Sultan Mehmed VI in February; flees Turkey in June, traveling through Syria to Mandatory Iraq and settling in Sulaymaniyah. |
1922 | Co-founds Jemiyeti Kurdistan (Kurdistan Association) on July 21 with other intellectuals; begins publishing "Bangi Kurdistan" newspaper. |
1922 | Appointed Minister of Education in Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji's cabinet following the proclamation of the Kingdom of Kurdistan on October 10. |
1924 | Petitions the League of Nations on October 1 against Turkish policies in Mosul Vilayet; the Kingdom of Kurdistan collapses due to British intervention. |
1926 | Moves to Baghdad and begins a career in journalism on January 28. |
1936 | Dies on May 25 in Baghdad at age 70; buried in Sulaymaniyah's Gurdi Saywan graveyard. |
1956 | His poetry divan is posthumously published. |
This timeline captures the arc of Yamulki's life, from Ottoman military ascent to post-war justice and Kurdish nationalism. It underscores his role in pivotal historical moments, including the Istanbul trials and early Kurdish state-building efforts.
Conclusion
Mustafa Yamulki's life encapsulates the struggles of Kurds in a fracturing empire. From Ottoman general to Kurdish minister, his journey reflects resilience amid adversity. His pursuit of justice and nationalism continues to inspire, reminding us of the human cost of imperial decline and the enduring quest for self-determination.
Q&A Section
Here is a comprehensive Q&A section based on Mustafa Yamulki's life, career, and legacy. These questions cover key aspects drawn from historical records, his roles in the Ottoman Empire, post-World War I trials, and Kurdish nationalism. Answers are detailed for clarity and context.
Who was Mustafa Yamulki, and what was his background?
Mustafa Yamulki, also known as Nemrud Mustafa Pasha, was a prominent Kurdish-Ottoman military officer, judge, politician, and journalist born on January 25, 1866, in Sulaymaniyah (Slemani), in the Mosul Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. He hailed from the influential Bilbaz tribe, a landowning Kurdish clan known for its role in regional affairs. Yamulki grew up in a family that valued education, studying initially in local mosques under scholars like Mala Fatah and Mala Erfan, where he learned Islamic studies, languages, and sciences. He later attended the Military Preparatory School in Baghdad and graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy in Istanbul in 1888. Multilingual in Kurdish, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian, he married Safya Khanim Khandan Zada in 1888, and they had four children: son Aziz (a colonel involved in later Iraqi politics) and daughters Zahra, Dr. Anjom, and Maliha. His background blended tribal Kurdish roots with Ottoman cosmopolitanism, shaping his identity as both a loyal imperial servant and a Kurdish patriot.
What were the major milestones in Yamulki's military career?
Yamulki's military career spanned over three decades in the Ottoman Empire. After graduating in 1888, he was posted to the Hijaz Division and rose through the ranks with postings in Iranian Kurdistan (1893), as deputy chief of staff for the Sixth Army in Baghdad (1899), and as border commissioner for Iraq-Iran (1904). Promoted to brigadier in 1909, he commanded forces in Ankara, Baghdad, and Azerbaijan. He fought in key conflicts, including the Italo-Turkish War (1911) as commander of the Fifth Army in Libya, the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), and World War I, leading Ottoman troops in Baghdad against British forces in 1917. Post-armistice, he led forces in Sivas (1918) and served as vice-governor of Bursa. His career highlighted his strategic expertise and administrative skills, earning him the rank of Major General (Mirliva). Despite his loyalty, the empire's collapse shifted his focus to judicial and nationalist roles.
What role did Yamulki play in the post-World War I Ottoman trials?
Yamulki is best known for presiding over the Istanbul Trials (1919–1920), also called the Turkish courts-martial or "Nemrud's Court." Appointed presiding judge in February 1919 and officially head on April 18, 1920, he oversaw prosecutions of Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) leaders for wartime crimes, including the Armenian Genocide, constitutional subversion, and profiteering. He sentenced key figures like Dr. Mehmed Reşid (governor of Diyarbakir) to death for mass killings (Reşid later committed suicide). In trials such as Yozgat and Harput, officials were convicted based on evidence like telegrams ordering deportations and massacres. Yamulki also condemned Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and nationalists like Fethi Okyar and Hüseyin Rauf Orbay to death in absentia for mutiny. He preserved and delivered documents on Armenian atrocities to the Armenian Patriarchate, condemning the events as "untold crimes" in court statements. Dismissed in June 1920 amid Kemalist pressures, he was imprisoned briefly before being pardoned in 1921. His integrity in these trials earned him a reputation as a "struggler for justice."
How was Yamulki involved in Kurdish nationalism and the Kingdom of Kurdistan?
After fleeing to Mandatory Iraq in 1921, Yamulki became a key figure in Kurdish self-determination efforts. In Sulaymaniyah, he co-founded the Jemiyeti Kurdistan (Kurdistan Association) on July 21, 1922, with intellectuals like Ahmad Behjat Afendi. The group published the newspaper "Bangi Kurdistan" to advocate for independence. When Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji proclaimed the Kingdom of Kurdistan on October 10, 1922, Yamulki was appointed Minister of Education in the cabinet, focusing on promoting Kurdish literacy and culture. His brother Siddik Qadiri served as Army General Inspector. The kingdom, with its inclusive cabinet (including a Christian finance minister), aimed for autonomy but collapsed in 1924 due to British intervention. On October 1, 1924, Yamulki petitioned the League of Nations against Turkish claims on Mosul and Kurdish mistreatment, citing the Treaty of Sèvres. His efforts underscored his shift from Ottoman loyalty to Kurdish advocacy.
What was Yamulki's contribution to journalism and literature?
In exile in Baghdad from 1926, Yamulki turned to journalism, starting publications on January 28, 1926, to voice Kurdish concerns and protest Turkish policies. He wrote articles championing independence and cultural preservation. As a poet, he composed in Kurdish, with his divan (collection) published posthumously in 1956. A notable verse he requested for his grave reads: "Etirsm ey weten bimrim, nebînim bextiyarî to / Binwsin ba leser qebrim, weten xemgîn u min xemgîn" (translating to: "My homeland, I fear dying without seeing your happiness / Etch on my grave that my homeland and I are both sad"). His writings reinforced Kurdish identity during a time of suppression.
When and how did Yamulki die, and what is his family legacy?
Yamulki died on May 25, 1936, at age 70 in Baghdad's Alwazyrya area, after a life of service and exile. He was buried in Sulaymaniyah's Gurdi Saywan graveyard alongside other Kurdish figures. His family carried on his legacy: Son Aziz Yamulki, a colonel, plotted a coup against the Iraqi government in the 1940s, reflecting inherited rebelliousness. Daughters included Zahra (died 1983), Dr. Anjom (a physician who passed in 1968 in Paris), and Maliha (died 1986), who married into prominent families.
What is Yamulki's enduring legacy today?
Yamulki symbolizes justice and Kurdish resilience. His role in exposing the Armenian Genocide challenged denialism, while his ministerial position advanced early Kurdish statehood. Though controversial for sentencing Atatürk, he is revered in Kurdish circles. Recent recognition includes the 2023 documentary "Mustafa Pasha Yamulki: A Struggler for Justice," directed by Horen Ghareeb and Hardi Qadir, which won Best Documentary at the 2024 Brightlight Film Festival. Premiered in Erbil and screened at festivals like Duhok IFF, it highlights his cross-cultural impact. His life continues to inspire discussions on nationalism, justice, and ethnic rights in the Middle East.
References
This references section compiles key sources on Mustafa Yamulki's life, career, and historical context, drawn from reliable historical, academic, and biographical materials. Citations are listed numerically for clarity, corresponding to inline references used throughout the article.
"Mustafa Yamulki." Wikipedia. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Yamulki. Provides an overview of Yamulki's early life, military career, and role in the Ottoman courts-martial.
"Mustafa Yamulki." Kurdipedia.org. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://kurdipedia.org/default.aspx?lng=8&q=20220402105303409781. Details Yamulki's family background, education, and appointment to the Turkish courts-martial post-World War I.
Fatah, Rebwar. "Mustafa Pasha Yamolki: From Istanbul to Suleymaniya." Tabsir.net, December 26, 2009. https://tabsir.net/?p=1039. Explores Yamulki's multilingual abilities, patriotism, and role in the Kurdish nationalist movement.
"Mustafa Yamulki." Military Wiki - Fandom. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Mustafa_Yamulki. Covers Yamulki's birthplace, military promotions, and political career, including his judicial roles.
"Mustafa Yamulki." Grokipedia. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://grokipedia.com/page/mustafa_yamulki. Discusses Yamulki's tribal origins, education, and sentences issued during the Istanbul trials.
"Mustafa Pasha Yamulki: A Struggler for Justice." HISTORY – International Film Festival Austria, June 15, 2024. https://www.history-filmfestival.com/mustafa-pasha-yamulki-a-struggler-for-justice. Focuses on Yamulki's judicial role in sentencing perpetrators of the Armenian Genocide and his commitment to justice.
"Mustafa Pasha Yamulki." Kurdipedia.org. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://kurdipedia.org/default.aspx?lng=8&q=20220726214435424886. Provides details on Yamulki's birthplace in Goizha neighborhood and family ties.
"The Historical Development of Kurdish Nationalism in Iraq." GRIN Verlag. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://www.grin.com/document/379416. Mentions Yamulki's role in establishing Kurdish nationalist movements like Jamiyyat-i Kurdistan.
Olson, Robert. "The Career of Ozdemir: A Turkish Bid for Northern Iraq, 1921–1923." JSTOR. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48543727. References Yamulki's connections in Kurdish-Greek relations during the early 1920s.
"Mustafa Yamulki a Struggler for Justice AKA 'Nemrud' Mustafa." HyeForum, June 16, 2025. https://hyeforum.com/topic/91315-mustafa-yamulki-a-struggler-for-justice-aka-nemrud-mustafa. Details Yamulki's sentencing of Mustafa Kemal and others, and his dismissal from office.
Cabi, Marouf. "The Zheen Centre for Documentation and Research: Preserving Archival Materials for Kurdish Historical Research." LSE Middle East Centre Blog, November 5, 2025. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mec/2025/11/05/the-zheen-centre-for-documentation-and-research-preserving-archival-materials-for-kurdish-historical-research. Contextualizes Yamulki within early 20th-century Kurdish historiography and archival efforts.
"Kurds, Kurdistān." Brill Reference Works. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EIEO/COM-0544.xml. Discusses sources for Kurdish history, relevant to Yamulki's era.
Rafaat, Aram. "Kurdish Islam and the Question of Kurdish Integration into the Iraqi State." Gale Academic OneFile, 2012. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA331348647&issn=0278839X&it=r&linkaccess=abs&p=AONE&sid=googleScholar&sw=w&v=2.1. References historical texts like Sharafnama as sources for Kurdish history.
"Şerif Pasha: The Diplomat Who Dreamed of Kurdistan (1865–1951)." Kurdish History, February 5, 2026. https://www.kurdish-history.com/post/%C5%9Ferif-pasha-the-diplomat-who-dreamed-of-kurdistan-1865-1951. Mentions Yamulki's family connections to other prominent Kurds like Şerif Pasha.
Bruinessen, Martin van. "The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937-38)." DSpace, 1994. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/20698/bruinessen_94_suppressionofthedersimrebellion.pdf. Provides broader context on Kurdish history and Turkish policies post-Ottoman era.
Bois, Thomas. "The Kurds." 1965. https://book.ivran.ru/f/thomas-bois---the-kurds.pdf. Offers insights into Kurdish origins, social life, and nationalism.
"Encum Yamulki (1895-1968)." Kurdish Women's Library, Archive and Research Center. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://pirtukxaneyajinenkurdistan.com/en/post/encum-yamulki-1895-1968. Details Yamulki's family, including his marriage and children.
Üngör, Uğur Ümit. "Young Turk Social Engineering: Mass Violence and the Nation State in Eastern Turkey, 1913-1950." UvA-DARE, Universiteit van Amsterdam. Accessed February 17, 2026. https://dare.uva.nl/document/135131. Discusses historical rewriting and suppression of Kurdish and Armenian texts under Kemalism.
"Iraq's Armed Forces: An Analytical History." National Academic Digital Library of Ethiopia. Accessed February 17, 2026. http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/29052/1/87.part. References Yamulki's son Aziz in the context of Ottoman and Iraqi military figures.
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